This article provides an exhaustive exploration of the key research areas and topics within PhD programs in Business Psychology, emphasizing their pivotal role in advancing scholarly knowledge and addressing pressing organizational, market, and societal challenges. Business psychology integrates psychological principles with business strategies to tackle complex issues in leadership, organizational behavior, consumer psychology, and human resources, and PhD research areas drive innovation by generating evidence-based solutions. This article delves into critical research domains, including organizational behavior and leadership dynamics, consumer psychology and neuromarketing, human resource management and talent development, cross-cultural and global business psychology, and emerging interdisciplinary topics such as AI, sustainability, and workplace well-being. By examining these areas, the article underscores how PhD research areas in Business Psychology produce groundbreaking insights, shape industry practices, and contribute to global academic and societal progress, positioning doctoral candidates as thought leaders in a dynamic, interconnected world.
Introduction
This article examines the key research areas and topics within PhD programs in Business Psychology, highlighting their essential role in fostering cutting-edge scholarship and practical solutions for contemporary organizational and market challenges. As an advanced component of Business Psychology Degrees, PhD programs extend master’s-level training by offering rigorous research opportunities to explore psychological principles applied to leadership, organizational dynamics, consumer behavior, and human resource management. These research areas are at the forefront of addressing complex global issues, producing knowledge that informs both academic theory and industry practice.
Business psychology at the PhD level demands a sophisticated integration of psychological theory, empirical research, and strategic business applications, and research areas provide the framework for candidates to make original contributions to the field. From investigating leadership effectiveness to exploring neuromarketing innovations, PhD candidates leverage advanced methodologies to address pressing questions in organizational and consumer contexts. This article provides a detailed analysis of organizational behavior, consumer psychology, human resource management, cross-cultural psychology, and emerging interdisciplinary topics, offering a comprehensive overview of how these research areas shape the field.
The significance of PhD research areas lies in their ability to address the evolving needs of globalized workplaces, where evidence-based insights, cultural competence, and technological advancements are critical for success. As organizations and markets demand innovative solutions to complex challenges, PhD programs in Business Psychology empower candidates to lead with intellectual rigor and practical impact. This article aims to provide an in-depth understanding of how key research areas and topics in PhD programs advance the field of business psychology, drive organizational innovation, and contribute to societal progress on a global scale.
Key Research Areas: Organizational Behavior and Leadership Dynamics
Research Areas in Organizational Behavior
Organizational behavior is a cornerstone research area in PhD programs in Business Psychology, focusing on understanding and optimizing individual, group, and organizational dynamics within workplace settings. Key topics include employee motivation, team cohesion, organizational culture, and workplace diversity, with research exploring how psychological principles can enhance productivity and well-being. Learning goals include analyzing behavioral patterns, designing evidence-based interventions, and contributing to organizational theory (Cummings & Worley, 2014).
For instance, a PhD candidate might investigate the impact of transformational leadership on team performance, using quantitative surveys to test motivation theories like self-determination theory. Research in this area often employs mixed-methods approaches, combining surveys, interviews, and observational data to provide comprehensive insights. Faculty mentors guide candidates in applying frameworks such as social exchange theory or organizational justice to address issues like employee engagement or conflict resolution.
Challenges include ensuring generalizability across diverse organizational contexts and addressing complex group dynamics. Institutions address these through robust methodological training and access to diverse organizational datasets, fostering rigorous research. Another challenge is balancing theoretical and applied contributions. Programs mitigate this by encouraging industry collaborations, ensuring relevance. These research areas prepare candidates to advance organizational behavior scholarship and practice.
Research Areas in Leadership Dynamics
Leadership dynamics represent a critical research area, exploring how psychological principles shape effective leadership in organizational contexts. Topics include leadership styles (e.g., transformational, servant, authentic), leader-member exchange, and leadership in crisis or remote work settings. Learning goals encompass analyzing leadership effectiveness, designing leadership interventions, and contributing to leadership theory (Northouse, 2019).
A candidate might research the impact of inclusive leadership on workplace diversity, using structural equation modeling to test hypotheses. Research in this area often integrates psychological theories, such as emotional intelligence or social identity theory, with business applications, examining leadership’s role in fostering innovation or managing change. Faculty provide mentorship through research labs and seminars, ensuring theoretical and empirical rigor.
Challenges include capturing the multifaceted nature of leadership and ensuring cross-cultural applicability. Institutions address these through interdisciplinary training and global case studies, fostering comprehensive insights. Another challenge is aligning research with practical leadership needs. Programs mitigate this through industry partnerships, ensuring actionable outcomes. These research areas position candidates as thought leaders in leadership dynamics, driving organizational success.
Interdisciplinary Leadership and Organizational Behavior Topics
Interdisciplinary topics in leadership and organizational behavior are emerging research areas, integrating insights from data science, neuroscience, and behavioral economics to address complex workplace issues. Topics include AI-driven leadership analytics, neuroleadership, and behavioral nudging in organizational change. Learning goals include applying interdisciplinary methodologies, synthesizing cross-disciplinary insights, and producing innovative research (Cascio & Aguinis, 2018).
A candidate might explore how AI analytics predict leadership effectiveness, combining machine learning with psychological frameworks. Faculty integrate advanced tools like Python and neuroimaging data, fostering cutting-edge research skills. These topics address the evolving needs of tech-driven workplaces, preparing candidates for roles in academia and consulting.
Challenges include ensuring methodological coherence and accessing advanced technologies. Institutions address these through interdisciplinary labs and industry collaborations, promoting rigor. Another challenge is preparing candidates for diverse career paths. Programs mitigate this through flexible training, ensuring relevance. These interdisciplinary research areas enhance candidates’ ability to innovate in leadership and organizational behavior scholarship.
Learning Goals and Outcomes for Organizational Behavior and Leadership Dynamics
The learning goals for organizational behavior and leadership dynamics research areas emphasize developing advanced analytical, theoretical, and applied research skills. Candidates are expected to analyze workplace dynamics, design evidence-based interventions, and contribute to theoretical and practical advancements. Outcomes include publishing high-impact research, developing leadership frameworks, and preparing for academic or industry leadership roles (Northouse, 2019).
For example, a candidate might publish a study on team diversity’s impact on innovation, demonstrating mastery through rigorous mixed-methods research. These goals align with the field’s demand for impactful scholars. Assessments, such as research publications, conference presentations, and dissertation chapters, ensure candidates meet these outcomes, verifying research competencies.
Challenges include ensuring research relevance across contexts and equitable access to resources. Institutions address these through global datasets and inclusive opportunities, fostering quality. Another challenge is balancing theoretical and applied contributions. Programs mitigate this through industry-aligned research, ensuring impact. These learning goals prepare candidates to excel in organizational behavior and leadership research, advancing business psychology scholarship.
Key Research Areas: Consumer Psychology and Neuromarketing
Research Areas in Consumer Psychology
Consumer psychology is a vital research area in PhD programs, focusing on understanding and influencing consumer behavior through psychological principles. Key topics include decision-making processes, emotional influences, brand loyalty, and cultural factors in purchasing behavior. Learning goals include analyzing consumer preferences, designing marketing interventions, and contributing to consumer behavior theory (Kotler & Keller, 2016).
A candidate might investigate how social norms influence sustainable purchasing, using experimental designs to test behavioral theories. Research often employs quantitative methods, such as surveys and A/B testing, alongside qualitative approaches like focus groups, to explore consumer motivations. Faculty mentors guide candidates in applying frameworks like the theory of planned behavior or prospect theory to address marketing challenges.
Challenges include ensuring generalizability across consumer segments and adapting to rapidly evolving markets. Institutions address these through diverse datasets and real-time case studies, fostering robust research. Another challenge is balancing academic rigor with practical applications. Programs mitigate this through industry partnerships, ensuring relevance. These research areas prepare candidates to advance consumer psychology scholarship and marketing practice.
Research Areas in Neuromarketing
Neuromarketing represents an innovative research area, leveraging neuroscience to explore consumer responses to marketing stimuli, such as advertisements or product designs. Topics include neural responses to branding, eye-tracking studies, and emotional engagement, using tools like EEG and fMRI. Learning goals encompass applying neuromarketing techniques, analyzing neural data, and ensuring ethical research practices (APA, 2023).
A candidate might study neural reactions to emotional advertising, using eye-tracking to optimize visual appeal. Faculty provide access to neuromarketing labs and training in neuroscientific methods, ensuring technical proficiency. These studies offer insights into subconscious consumer behavior, informing marketing strategies and brand development.
Challenges include accessing advanced technologies and addressing ethical concerns, such as consumer privacy. Institutions address these through simulated data and ethics training, promoting responsible research. Another challenge is integrating neuromarketing with traditional consumer psychology. Programs mitigate this through interdisciplinary training, ensuring coherence. These research areas position candidates as leaders in neuromarketing innovation.
Emerging Topics in Consumer Psychology and Neuromarketing
Emerging topics in consumer psychology and neuromarketing include AI-driven consumer analytics, virtual reality (VR) marketing, and sustainable consumer behavior, reflecting technological and societal shifts. These topics explore how AI predicts purchasing patterns, VR enhances consumer experiences, and psychological nudges promote eco-friendly choices. Learning goals include applying emerging methodologies, synthesizing interdisciplinary insights, and producing innovative research (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008).
A candidate might research VR’s impact on consumer engagement, using AI to analyze behavioral data. Faculty integrate advanced tools like machine learning algorithms and VR labs, fostering cutting-edge skills. These topics address the evolving needs of digital and sustainable markets, preparing candidates for roles in marketing research and strategy.
Challenges include ensuring technological access and ethical application. Institutions address these through open-source tools and ethics frameworks, promoting equity. Another challenge is aligning emerging topics with traditional theories. Programs mitigate this through balanced curricula, ensuring relevance. These emerging research areas enhance candidates’ ability to innovate in consumer psychology and neuromarketing.
Learning Goals and Outcomes for Consumer Psychology and Neuromarketing
The learning goals for consumer psychology and neuromarketing research areas emphasize developing analytical, innovative, and ethical research skills. Candidates are expected to analyze consumer behavior, apply neuromarketing techniques, and contribute to theoretical and applied advancements. Outcomes include publishing impactful research, designing effective marketing interventions, and preparing for academic or industry roles (Kotler & Keller, 2016).
For example, a candidate might publish a neuromarketing study on brand loyalty, demonstrating mastery through rigorous data analysis and ethical considerations. These goals align with industry demands for innovative researchers. Assessments, such as research manuscripts, experimental designs, and conference presentations, ensure candidates meet these outcomes, verifying research competencies.
Challenges include ensuring research impact and equitable access to tools. Institutions address these through industry partnerships and inclusive resources, fostering quality. Another challenge is balancing academic and applied contributions. Programs mitigate this through practical focus, ensuring relevance. These learning goals prepare candidates to excel in consumer psychology and neuromarketing research, advancing business psychology scholarship.
Key Research Areas: Human Resource Management and Talent Development
Research Areas in HR Management
Human resource management (HRM) is a critical research area, focusing on optimizing workforce performance through psychological principles. Key topics include employee engagement, performance appraisal systems, diversity and inclusion, and HR analytics. Learning goals include analyzing HR practices, designing evidence-based interventions, and contributing to HRM theory (Becker, Huselid, & Ulrich, 2001).
A candidate might investigate the impact of diversity training on employee retention, using quantitative surveys to test psychological frameworks. Research often employs statistical modeling and qualitative interviews to explore HR challenges, such as talent retention or workplace equity. Faculty mentors guide candidates in applying theories like organizational justice or self-efficacy to address HR issues.
Challenges include ensuring generalizability across industries and addressing complex employee dynamics. Institutions address these through diverse datasets and case studies, fostering robust research. Another challenge is balancing theoretical and applied HRM research. Programs mitigate this through industry collaborations, ensuring relevance. These research areas prepare candidates to advance HRM scholarship and practice.
Research Areas in Talent Development
Talent development is an emerging research area, exploring strategies to enhance employee skills, leadership potential, and career progression. Topics include leadership development programs, employee training effectiveness, and succession planning, emphasizing psychological principles. Learning goals encompass designing talent development interventions, evaluating outcomes, and contributing to talent management theory (Noe, 2017).
A candidate might research the efficacy of leadership coaching, using mixed-methods to assess skill acquisition. Faculty provide training in psychometric assessments and evaluation models, such as Kirkpatrick’s framework, ensuring rigorous research. These studies inform talent strategies, enhancing organizational performance and employee growth.
Challenges include measuring long-term development outcomes and ensuring program scalability. Institutions address these through longitudinal studies and industry partnerships, fostering impact. Another challenge is aligning talent development with diverse organizational needs. Programs mitigate this through flexible research designs, ensuring applicability. These research areas position candidates as leaders in talent development innovation.
Emerging Topics in HR and Talent Development
Emerging topics in HR and talent development include AI-driven talent analytics, remote work dynamics, and diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) interventions, reflecting technological and societal shifts. These topics explore how AI optimizes hiring, remote work impacts engagement, and DEI fosters workplace equity. Learning goals include applying emerging methodologies, synthesizing interdisciplinary insights, and producing innovative research (Becker, Huselid, & Ulrich, 2001).
A candidate might study AI’s role in predicting talent retention, using machine learning to analyze HR data. Faculty integrate advanced analytics tools and DEI frameworks, fostering cutting-edge skills. These topics address the evolving needs of modern workplaces, preparing candidates for roles in HR strategy and consulting.
Challenges include ensuring technological and ethical rigor. Institutions address these through open-source tools and ethics training, promoting responsible research. Another challenge is integrating emerging topics with traditional HR theories. Programs mitigate this through balanced curricula, ensuring coherence. These emerging research areas enhance candidates’ ability to innovate in HR and talent development.
Learning Goals and Outcomes for Human Resource Management and Talent Development
The learning goals for HR management and talent development research areas emphasize developing strategic, analytical, and ethical research skills. Candidates are expected to analyze HR and talent challenges, design innovative interventions, and contribute to theoretical and applied advancements. Outcomes include publishing impactful research, developing HR strategies, and preparing for leadership roles (Noe, 2017).
For example, a candidate might publish a study on DEI training efficacy, demonstrating mastery through rigorous mixed-methods research. These goals align with industry demands for strategic HR professionals. Assessments, such as research manuscripts, intervention evaluations, and conference presentations, ensure candidates meet these outcomes, verifying research competencies.
Challenges include ensuring intervention impact and equitable access to resources. Institutions address these through industry-aligned research and inclusive opportunities, fostering quality. Another challenge is balancing academic and applied contributions. Programs mitigate this through practical focus, ensuring relevance. These learning goals prepare candidates to excel in HR and talent development research, advancing business psychology scholarship.
Key Research Areas: Cross-Cultural and Global Business Psychology
Research Areas in Cross-Cultural Psychology
Cross-cultural psychology is a vital research area, exploring how cultural factors influence organizational and consumer behavior in global contexts. Key topics include cross-cultural leadership, cultural influences on employee motivation, and global consumer preferences. Learning goals include analyzing cultural impacts, designing cross-cultural interventions, and contributing to global psychology theory (Hofstede, 2011).
A candidate might investigate how collectivism affects team performance, using qualitative interviews across cultures. Research often employs cross-cultural frameworks, such as Hofstede’s dimensions or GLOBE studies, to explore global workplace dynamics. Faculty mentors guide candidates in navigating cultural complexities, ensuring rigorous research.
Challenges include ensuring cultural authenticity and accessing diverse data. Institutions address these through global partnerships and cross-cultural datasets, fostering robust research. Another challenge is balancing cultural specificity with generalizability. Programs mitigate this through mixed-methods approaches, ensuring applicability. These research areas prepare candidates to advance cross-cultural psychology scholarship.
Research Areas in Global Business Psychology
Global business psychology research areas focus on applying psychological principles to multinational organizational and market challenges. Topics include global talent management, international marketing strategies, and cross-border organizational change. Learning goals encompass designing global strategies, analyzing international dynamics, and contributing to global business theory (Tung, 2016).
A candidate might study the psychological impact of global remote work, using surveys to assess engagement across regions. Faculty provide training in global research methodologies and international case studies, ensuring relevance. These studies inform multinational strategies, enhancing organizational and market performance.
Challenges include coordinating global research and ensuring cultural relevance. Institutions address these through international collaborations and diverse mentorship, fostering quality. Another challenge is aligning with diverse industry needs. Programs mitigate this through industry partnerships, ensuring impact. These research areas position candidates as leaders in global business psychology.
Emerging Topics in Cross-Cultural and Global Psychology
Emerging topics in cross-cultural and global psychology include digital cross-cultural interactions, global DEI interventions, and sustainable global practices, reflecting technological and societal shifts. These topics explore how virtual teams navigate cultural differences, DEI enhances global workplaces, and sustainability shapes consumer behavior. Learning goals include applying emerging methodologies, synthesizing global insights, and producing innovative research (Tung, 2016).
A candidate might research digital cross-cultural team dynamics, using AI-driven sentiment analysis to assess collaboration. Faculty integrate advanced tools and global ESG frameworks, fostering cutting-edge skills. These topics address the needs of globalized, tech-driven workplaces, preparing candidates for roles in international consulting and leadership.
Challenges include ensuring technological and cultural rigor. Institutions address these through global datasets and ethics training, promoting responsible research. Another challenge is integrating emerging topics with traditional theories. Programs mitigate this through balanced curricula, ensuring coherence. These emerging research areas enhance candidates’ ability to innovate in global psychology.
Learning Goals and Outcomes for Cross-Cultural and Global Business Psychology
The learning goals for cross-cultural and global business psychology research areas emphasize developing cultural, strategic, and ethical research skills. Candidates are expected to analyze global dynamics, design cross-cultural interventions, and contribute to theoretical and applied advancements. Outcomes include publishing impactful research, developing global strategies, and preparing for international roles (Hofstede, 2011).
For example, a candidate might publish a study on global talent management, demonstrating mastery through cross-cultural research and strategic insights. These goals align with industry demands for global professionals. Assessments, such as global research manuscripts, intervention evaluations, and conference presentations, ensure candidates meet these outcomes, verifying competencies.
Challenges include ensuring cultural impact and equitable access. Institutions address these through global partnerships and inclusive resources, fostering quality. Another challenge is balancing academic and applied contributions. Programs mitigate this through practical focus, ensuring relevance. These learning goals prepare candidates to excel in cross-cultural and global research, advancing business psychology scholarship.
Emerging Interdisciplinary Topics
AI and Technology in Business Psychology
AI and technology in business psychology are rapidly growing research areas, exploring how artificial intelligence, machine learning, and digital platforms enhance organizational and consumer outcomes. Topics include AI-driven HR analytics, algorithmic consumer profiling, and virtual team dynamics. Learning goals include applying AI methodologies, analyzing digital data, and ensuring ethical technology use (APA, 2023).
A candidate might study AI’s role in predicting employee turnover, using neural networks to analyze HR data. Faculty provide training in AI tools and ethical frameworks, ensuring technical and responsible research. These topics address the needs of tech-driven workplaces, preparing candidates for roles in data science and consulting.
Challenges include ensuring AI accessibility and ethical application. Institutions address these through open-source tools and ethics training, promoting equity. Another challenge is integrating AI with psychological principles. Programs mitigate this through interdisciplinary training, ensuring coherence. These research areas position candidates as innovators in tech-driven business psychology.
Sustainability and ESG in Business Psychology
Sustainability and Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) research areas focus on applying psychological principles to promote sustainable and ethical business practices. Topics include sustainable consumer behavior, ESG-driven leadership, and workplace well-being interventions. Learning goals encompass designing sustainable strategies, aligning with ESG principles, and contributing to societal impact (Northouse, 2019).
A candidate might research psychological nudges for sustainable purchasing, using experimental designs to test interventions. Faculty integrate ESG case studies and industry partnerships, ensuring relevance. These topics prepare candidates for roles in sustainable HR and marketing, addressing global sustainability demands.
Challenges include measuring sustainability impact and ensuring global relevance. Institutions address these through impact assessments and international frameworks, fostering quality. Another challenge is supporting diverse sustainability interests. Programs mitigate this through flexible research, ensuring inclusivity. These research areas enhance candidates’ ability to lead sustainable business psychology initiatives.
Workplace Well-Being and Mental Health
Workplace well-being and mental health are emerging research areas, exploring psychological interventions to enhance employee health, resilience, and engagement. Topics include mindfulness programs, burnout prevention, and psychological safety in teams. Learning goals include designing well-being interventions, evaluating mental health outcomes, and contributing to organizational health (APA, 2023).
A candidate might study the impact of mindfulness training on employee stress, using mixed-methods to assess outcomes. Faculty provide training in psychometric tools and evaluation models, ensuring rigorous research. These topics address the growing focus on mental health, preparing candidates for roles in HR and organizational development.
Challenges include measuring long-term well-being outcomes and ensuring scalability. Institutions address these through longitudinal studies and industry partnerships, fostering impact. Another challenge is aligning with diverse organizational needs. Programs mitigate this through flexible designs, ensuring applicability. These research areas position candidates as leaders in workplace well-being innovation.
Learning Goals and Outcomes for Emerging Interdisciplinary Topics
The learning goals for emerging interdisciplinary topics emphasize developing innovative, ethical, and impactful research skills to address cutting-edge research areas. Candidates are expected to apply AI, sustainability, and well-being methodologies, synthesize interdisciplinary insights, and contribute to theoretical and applied advancements. Outcomes include publishing pioneering research, developing innovative interventions, and preparing for leadership roles (Northouse, 2019).
For example, a candidate might publish a study on AI-driven well-being interventions, demonstrating mastery through interdisciplinary research and ethical considerations. These goals align with industry demands for innovative professionals. Assessments, such as research manuscripts, intervention evaluations, and conference presentations, ensure candidates meet these outcomes, verifying competencies.
Challenges include ensuring technological and ethical rigor and equitable access. Institutions address these through advanced tools and inclusive opportunities, fostering quality. Another challenge is balancing emerging and traditional research. Programs mitigate this through integrated curricula, ensuring relevance. These learning goals prepare candidates to excel in interdisciplinary research, advancing business psychology scholarship.
Conclusion
Key research areas in PhD programs in Business Psychology are instrumental in shaping the future of the field, equipping candidates with the expertise to address complex organizational, market, and societal challenges through rigorous scholarship. This article has explored organizational behavior, consumer psychology, human resource management, cross-cultural psychology, and emerging interdisciplinary topics, highlighting their learning goals and transformative impact. By delving into leadership dynamics, neuromarketing, talent development, global business strategies, and cutting-edge areas like AI and sustainability, these research areas produce evidence-based insights that advance academic theory and inform industry practices.
Challenges such as ensuring methodological rigor, cultural relevance, and equitable access require sustained institutional support. Universities must invest in advanced research facilities, global partnerships, inclusive training, and ethical frameworks to foster these research endeavors, ensuring accessibility and excellence for diverse candidates. By addressing these challenges, PhD programs maintain their position at the forefront of business psychology innovation, preparing graduates for impactful careers.
Looking ahead, research areas will continue to evolve, embracing advancements like AI-driven analytics, globalized ESG frameworks, and mental health interventions, aligning with the dynamic needs of global workplaces. As the demand for psychologically informed scholars and practitioners grows, PhD programs in Business Psychology will produce thought leaders who drive innovation, shape industry standards, and contribute to organizational and societal progress, leveraging their expertise in key research areas to redefine the boundaries of the field.
References
- American Psychological Association. (2023). Graduate study in psychology. https://www.apa.org/education-career/grad
- Becker, B. E., Huselid, M. A., & Ulrich, D. (2001). The HR scorecard: Linking people, strategy, and performance. Harvard Business Review Press.
- Cascio, W. F., & Aguinis, H. (2018). Applied psychology in talent management (8th ed.). SAGE Publications.
- Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
- Cummings, T. G., & Worley, C. G. (2014). Organization development and change (10th ed.). Cengage Learning.
- Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014
- Kotler, P., & Keller, K. L. (2016). Marketing management (15th ed.). Pearson.
- Noe, R. A. (2017). Employee training and development (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
- Northouse, P. G. (2019). Leadership: Theory and practice (8th ed.). SAGE Publications.
- Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. (2023). Core competencies in I-O psychology. https://www.siop.org/Education-Programs/Core-Competencies
- Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Yale University Press.
- Tung, R. L. (2016). New perspectives on human resource management in a global context. Journal of World Business, 51(1), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2015.10.004